HEAT ENGINES VOL. I [THERMODYNAMICS AND THERMAL ENGINEERING] by Dr. N. C. Pandya and Dr. C. S. Shah Revised and Enlarged by Dr. S. S. Khandare

This is one of the most comprehensive revisions since the book was first published in 1959. At the same time the text matter is thoroughly revised, extensively enlarged, completely updated, restructured and reorganised. This book is now, in a new form, in a different size and adding plenty of new matter, examples and drawings.

The outline of the book is:

The book within its 735 + 16 pages, now comprises the following:

* 304 * 252 * 788 * 300 *   78 * 211

Self-explanatory and neatly drawn sketches Solved numerical examples Exercises for practice Objective questions Useful tables Short Questions for Viva Voce.

The following new Chapters are now added in this volume:

Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION

Chapter 2 : PROPERTIES OF GASES

Chapter 3 : AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Chapter 4 : FLOW PROCESSES AND THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS

Chapter 5 : PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND STEAM CYCLE

Chapter 6 : STEAM BOILERS

Chapter 7 : BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES

Chapter 8 : TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF BOILAR

Chapter 9 : DRAUGHT

Chapter 10 : FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Chapter 11 : STEAM ENGINE

Chapter 12 : TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF STEAM ENGINES

Chapter 13 : STEAM NOZZLE

Chapter 14 : STEAM TURBINE

Chapter 15 : CONDENSER

Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION

1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-11 1-12 1-13 1-13-1 1-13-2 1-14 1-15 1-16 1-16-1 1-16-2 1-16-3 1-16-4 1-17 1-18 1-19 1-20 1-21 1-22

Concepts of heat engines Types of heat engines Engineering thermodynamics Working fluids and thermodynamic system Thermodynamic state and Thermodynamic process System of units Units of length, area and volume Specific volume Units of mass Units of force Units of work and power Units of energy Measurements of properties of fluid Pressure Temperature Zeroth law of thermodynamics Temperature measurement Pyrometers Thermo-electric pyrometer Radiation pyrometer Optical pyrometer Pyrometric cone or seger cone pyrometer Absolute temperature scale and absolute zero NTP (normal temperature pressure) and STP (standard temperature pressure) conditions Volume Work Heat Properties of substances Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 2 : PROPERTIES OF GASES

2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9 2-10 2-11 2-12 2-13 2-14 2-15 2-16 2-17 2-18 2-18-1 2-18-2 2-19 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-23 2-24 2-25 2-26 2-27 2-28 2-29 2-30 2-31 2-32 2-33 2-34 2-35 2-36 2-36-1 2-36-2 2-36-3 2-37 2-38 2-39 2-40 2-41 2-41-1 2-41-2 2-41-3 2-42 2-43 2-44

Perfect gas Vapour Boyle’s law Charles’ law Combination of laws of boyle and charles Vander waal's equation Units of R Universal gas constant Avogadro’s law Accountability of energy Joule’s law of internal energy Enthalpy Entropy Intensive and extensive properties Thermodynamic system Law of conservation of energy First law of thermodynamics Concepts of the second law of thermodynamics Kelvin-plank statement Clausius statement Specific heats of a gas Ratio of specific heats Relation between the two specific heats of a gas and the specific gas constant General equation for entropy changes for ideal gases Properties of gas mixtures Expansion and compression of gases Point and path functions Process Constant volume process Constant pressure process Isothermal process Isentropic process Polytropic process Determination of the index of expansion or compression Comparison of work done by a gas during expansion for various processes Mean effective pressure Summary of equations for gas processes Other important processes Hyperbolic expansion Free expansion Throttling process Gas tables Approximation for heat absorbed Typical examples Reversibility Available energy and availability Decrease in available energy Availability of a finite system Availability in a closed system Effectiveness Irreversibility Available energy and physical concept of entropy Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 3 : AIR STANDARD CYCLES

3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-15 3-16 3-17 3-18

Introduction Heat machine Useful work Efficiency of cycle Air standard efficiency of cycle Assumptions in the thermodynamic cycles Thermodynamic cycles Carnot cycle Otto cycle Mean effective pressure Diesel cycle Dual combustion cycle Stirling cycle Ericsson cycle Brayton cycle Comparison of ideal cycles Reversed brayton cycle (bell coleman cycle) Coefficient of performance (COP) Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 4 : FLOW PROCESSES AND THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS

4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-13 4-14 4-15 4-16 4-17 4-18 4-19

FLOW PROCESSES Flow processes Steady flow energy equation Control volume and flow work Flow work of steady flow system Applications of steady-flow energy equation THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS Thermodynamic relations Thermodynamic equilibrium Compressibility factor and chart P–V–T relations graph Mathemetical relations Helmholtz free energy equation Gibbs free energy Thermodynamic equations Relation for entropy Equation of state Relation between specific heat Joule thomson coefficient Clausius – claperoyan equation Third law of thermodynamics Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 5 : PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND STEAM CYCLE

5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-9 5-10 5-11 5-12 5-13 5-14 5-15 5-16 5-17 5-18 5-19 5-20 5-21 5-22 5-23 5-24 5-25 5-26 5-27 5-28 5-29 5-30 5-31 5-32 5-33 5-34 5-35 5-36 5-37

PROPERTIES OF STEAM Vapour and steam Conservation of form Phase diagram Effect of pressure on the boiling point of water Temperature-pressure curve for steam Generation of one kg of steam at a given pressure from water initially at 0°C Conditions of steam Saturated steam Dry saturated steam and wet steam Superheated steam Supersaturated steam Properties of steam Dryness fraction of saturated steam Use of steam tables Sensible heat Latent heat of vaporization Enthalpy of wet steam Enthalpy of superheated steam Specific volume of steam Internal energy of steam Entropy of vapours Temperature–entropy diagram Heat entropy chart (mollier chart) Pressure-enthalpy chart Heating and expansion of vapours Methods of determination of dryness fraction of steam Bucket calorimeter Separating calorimeter Throttling calorimeter Combined separating and throttling calorimeter Typical examples STEAM CYCLE Steam cycle Carnot cycle Rankine cycle Comparison of rankine and carnot cycles on temperature entropy diagram Work done during rankine cycle on pressure-volume diagram Modified rankine cycle Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 6 : STEAM BOILERS

6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6 6-7 6-8 6-9 6-10 6-11 6-12 6-13 6-13-1 6-13-2 6-14 6-15 6-16 6-17 6-18 6-18-1 6-18-2 6-18-3 6-18-4 6-18-5 6-18-6 6-18-7 6-19 6-19-1 6-19-2 6-19-3 6-20 6-20-1 6-20-2 6-21 6-21-1 6-21-2 6-21-3 6-22 6-22-1 6-22-2 6-22-3 6-22-4 6-22-5 6-23

Function of boiler Classification of boilers Terms commonly employed in connection with boilers Lancashire boiler Cornish boiler Multi-tubular fire tube boilers Horizontal return tubular boilers Locomotive boiler Vertical boilers Cochran boiler Scotch marine fire-tube boiler Water tube boilers Babcock and wilcox water tube boiler Construction of babcock and wilcox type boiler Settings for the babcock and wilcox boiler Stirling boiler (bent tube type water tube boiler) Integral furnace boiler Waste heat boilers Boiler specifications Fluidized bed combustions boilers (FBC) Pulverized coal firing system Pulverized fuel Advantages of pulverized fuels Disadvantages of stroker firing system Fluidized bed combustion Advantages of FBC boilers Classification of fluidized bed combustion (FBC) boilers Thermal efficiency of FBC boiler Unburnt fuel in flue gases Sensible heat in flue gases Surface radiation losses Pulverized fuel handling systems Unit system Central or bin system Pulverized fuel burners Long flame or U-flame or streamlined burners Short flame or turbulent burner Tangential burners Modern boilers La mont boiler Benson boiler Loeffler boiler Schmidt-hartmann boiler Velox boiler Advantages of high pressure poilers Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 7: BOILER MOUNTINGS And ACCESSORIES

7-1 7-2 7-2-1 7-2-2 7-2-3 7-2-4 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13 7-14 7-14-1 7-14-2 7-14-3 7-14-4 7-15 7-15-1 7-16 7-17 7-17-1 7-17-2 7-18 7-19

Steam boiler mountings Safety valves Dead weight safety valve Spring loaded safety valve Lever loaded safety valve High steam and low water safety valve Water level indicators Pressure gauge Attachment for inspector’s test gauge Steam stop valve Feed check valve Blow-off cock Manhole Fusible plug Boiler accessories Economizers Air pre-heaters Superheaters Methods of superheating steam Methods of control of superheat Smooth tube hairpin type superheater Multiple loop superheaters Feed pumps Duplex feed pump Steam drier or separator Steam trap Expansion trap Bucket or float trap Injectors Pressure reducing valve Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 8 : TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF BOILA

8-1 8-2 8-3 8-4 8-5 8-6 8-7 8-8 8-9 8-10 8-11 8-12 8-13 8-14 8-15 8-16 8-17 8-17-1 8-17-2 8-17-3 8-17-4 8-17-5 8-17-6 8-18 8-19 8-20

Feed water Steam Fuel Duration of boiler test Flue gas sampling Flue gas temperature measurement Air Draught External heat losses from boiler and brick work Auxiliary plant Air infiltration and by-passing Thermal efficiency of the boiler Evaporation Boiler performance Equivalent evaporation Boiler efficiency Boiler trial Objective of a boiler trial Plant Report sheet on boiler trial Specimen set of calculations Graphical representation of results Conclusions and criticisms Boiler house instruments Boiler house records Combustion losses Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 9 : DRAUGHT

9-1 9-2 9-3 9-4 9-5 9-6 9-7 9-8 9-9 9-10 9-11 9-12 9-13 9-14 9-14-1 9-14-2 9-15 9-16

Definition of draught Classification of draught Functions of a chimney Natural draught Determination of a height of a chimney to produce a given total static draught Condition for maximum discharge through a chimney Efficiency of a chimney Draught losses Artificial draught Mechanical draught Induced draught Forced draught Balanced draught Power required to drive a fan Power required for a forced draught fan Power required for an induced draught fan Steam jet draught Draught gauges Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 10 : FUELS AND COMBUSTION

10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12 10-13 10-13-1 10-13-2 10-14 10-14-1 10-14-2 10-14-3 10-14-4 10-15 10-16 10-17 10-18 10-19 10-20	Classification of fuels Solid fuels Liquid fuels Hydrocarbons Gaseous fuels Calorific value of fuels Theoretical determination of calorific value of fuel Calorific value of gaseous fuels Experimental determination of calorific value of a fuel Bomb calorimeter Calorific value of liquid fuels Calorific value of gaseous fuels Gas calorimeters Boy’s gas calorimeter Junker’s gas calorimeter Combustion of a fuel Combustion of carbon Combustion of carbon monoxide Combustion of hydrogen Combustion of sulphur Stoichiometric air–fuel ratio Excess air Determination of the flue gas analysis by mass and by volume Determination of air supplied from volumetric analysis of flue gases Determination of air leakage in boiler flues Determination of the quantity of air supplied per kg of fuel from the analysis of flue gases when given by mass
10-21 10-21-1 10-21-2 10-21-3 10-21-4 10-22 10-23	Chemically correct air fuel ratio Combustion of hydrogen Combustion of carbon monoxide Combustion of marsh gas Excess air coefficient Determination of flue gas analysis by volume and by mass in case of gaseous fuel Determination of quantity of air supplied per m3 of gas from dry flue gas analysis in case of gaseous fuels
10-24 10-25 10-25-1 10-25-2 10-26	Calculation of heat losses Exhaust gas analysis Conventional method Modern methods Determination of air-fuel ratiowith the help of dry flue gas analysis Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 11 : STEAM ENGINE

11-1 11-2 11-3 11-4 11-5 11-6 11-7 11-8 11-9 11-10 11-11 11-12 11-13 11-14 11-15 11-15-1 11-15-2 11-16 11-17 11-18 11-19 11-20 11-21 11-22 11-23 11-24 11-25 11-26 11-27

Introduction Classification Parts of a simple steam engine Function of steam engine parts Terms connected with steam engines Working of a steam engine Hypothetical indicator diagram Construction of hypothetical indicator diagram Determination of mean effective pressure Work done in a steam engine cylinder during a hypothetical cycle Actual indicator diagram and diagram factor Determination of “theoretical indicated power” Indicator Steam consumption Missing quantity Causes of missing quantity Means of reducing cylinder condensation Efficiencies Steam engine governors Flywheel Compound steam engines Advantages of compounding of steam engine Classification of compound engines Terms used in connection with compound engines Mean effective pressure referred to the l.p. cylinder Estimation of cylinder dimensions (two cylinder compound engine) Triple and quadruple expansion engines Governing of compound engines Uniflow engines Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 12 : TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF STEAM ENGINE

12-1 12-2 12-3 12-3-1 12-3-2 12-4 12-5

Purpose of engine trials Trial procedure The brake power and its measurements Brake power Measurement of brake power Mechanical efficiency Report on a simple steam engine trial Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 13: STEAM NOZZLE

13-1 13-2 13-3 13-4 13-5 13-6 13-7 13-8 13-9 13-10 13-11 13-12 13-13 13-14 13-15 13-16 13-17

Introduction Types of nozzles Mass flow rate Flow of wet steam Flow through steam nozzles Velocity of steam leaving nozzle Effect of friction in nozzle Friction loss Mass of steam discharged Critical pressure ratio Design of nozzle Length of nozzle Velocity coefficient Sub-sonic and super-sonic flow Supersaturated or metastable expansion of steam in the nozzle Wilson line Steam injector Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 14 : STEAM TURBINE

14-1 14-2 14-3 14-4 14-4-1 14-4-2 14-5 14-6 14-7 14-8 14-9 14-9-1 14-9-2 14-9-3 14-10 14-11 14-12 14-13 14-14 14-15 14-16 14-17 14-18 14-18-1 14-19 14-20 14-20-1 14-20-2 14-20-3 14-21 14-22

SIMPLE STEAM TURBINE Introduction Types of steam turbines Classification of steam turbine Impulse turbine Velocity diagram of steam turbine Forces on the blade and work done Effect of blade friction on velocity diagram Blade speed ratio Single stage impulse turbine maximum efficiency relation Simple De–laval turbine MULTI-STAGE STEAM TURBINE Methods of reducing rotor speed or compounding of stages Velocity–compounded impulse turbine Efficiency of a velocity-compounded turbine Velocity diagram for axial discharge Pressure-compounded impulse turbine Pressure–velocity compounded impulse turbine Parson's reaction turbine Velocity diagram for reaction turbine Degree of reaction Condition for maximum efficiency Height of blades for reaction turbine Re-heat factor Re-heating process Advantages of re-heating Regenerative feed heating or bleeding process Steam turbine governing Throttle governing Nozzle control governing By–pass governing Erosion of turbine blades Advantages of steam turbine over gas turbine Objective questions Top>>

Chapter 15 : CONDENSER

15-1 15-2 15-3 15-4 15-5 15-6 15-7 15-8 15-9 15-10 15-11 15-12 15-13 15-14 15-15 15-16 15-17 15-18 15-18-1 15-19 15-20 15-21

Function of condenser Type of condensers Jet condensers Surface condenser Central flow type condenser Evaporative condenser Reasons for inefficiency in surface condenser Air leakage in condenser Vacuum Effect of air in a condenser Methods for obtaining maximum vacuum in condenser Vacuum efficiency Coefficient of performance or efficiency of a surface condenser Determination of circulating water required in a condenser Heat transmission in tubes Cooling towers Condenser efficiency Air pump Types of pump Steam jet air ejector Modern air ejector plant Exhaust connections Objective questions Top>>

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A	:	Short questions for viva-voce
APPENDIX B	:	Steam tables (with Mollier Diagram)